Phthalate esters comprise a family of common industrial compounds, dialkyl- or alkyl/aryl esters of phthalic acid, which are used as plasticizers to impart flexibility to polyvinylchloride (PVC) plastics, as well as additives in many chemical and pharmaceutical formulations. They are present in a wide range of consumer products including building materials, food packaging, clothing, toys, medical devices, cosmetics, lubricant oils and solvents. Phthalates are not chemically bound to PVC and can leach out of plastics, which contributes to their ubiquitous presence in the environment. The industrial application as well as toxicity profile of phthalates is largely dependent upon the characteristics of the alkyl/aryl side chains of the ester molecule. Although phthalates usually display low acute toxicity, they have been focus of significant concern because of the evidence of reproductive adverse effects in experimental animals. In general, phthalates with medium- (e.g. dibutyl phthalate [DBP]) or branched long-side chains (e.g. di(2-ehtylhexyl phthalate [DEHP]) are considered reproductive toxicants while those with short- (diethyl phthalate) or linear long-side chains (di-n-octyl phthalate) are less active. Results of transgeneration studies in rats indicate that the reproductive system of developing animals is particularly vulnerable to active phthalates, which are able to reduce endogenous hormonal production by the fetal testis. In utero exposure of rats to certain phthalates results in a spectrum of effects that are remarkably similar to reproductive disorders that comprise the human testicular dysgenesis syndrome, including cryptorchidism, hypospadias and low sperm counts. In addition, there are also evidences of endocrine disruption and reproductive effects in wildlife, including alterations in aquatic organisms. In the present review, we describe the reproductive effects and possible mode of action of major phthalates on laboratory animals, findings in wildlife and humans, as well as the relevance of these data to understanding the risks for human health and the environment. © 2012 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved.
