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8803090 
Book/Book Chapter 
Rare Earth Production, Regulatory USA/International Constraints and Chinese Dominance 
Kennedy, JC 
2016 
Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology
ISSN: 978-0-12-804239-7 
Elsevier Inc. 
Rare Earths Industry 
37-55 
English 
The emergent imbalance in rare earths is primarily a self-imposed construct outside China. International regulations pertaining to source material have had a significant role in today's outsized market distortions related to rare earths. The resulting market concentration has caused severe economic dislocation and national security problems for the United States (US), Japan, Korea, the European Union (EU), and other nations. A solution to this problem is required. Traditional free market solutions are failing. These failures are largely linked to regulatory obstacles preventing the use of monazite, apatite, and other thorium and uranium-bearing rare earth resources that are common byproducts of existing mining operations throughout the US and the world. These regulatory obstacles force Western producers to develop low thorium/uranium deposits with rare earth distributions that do not conform to market demand.This chapter demonstrates that the status quo is not economically or strategically viable. Developing rare earth resource supply chains within the current regulatory constraints is unworkable. Lowering environmental standards or fast-tracking new mining permits is not necessary or desirable.To develop an alternative rare earth resource outside China, these regulatory issues must be addressed. Furthermore, the development of additional rare earth resources cannot resolve economic or national security issues without a corresponding fully integrated value chain of rare earth products such as metals, alloys, magnets, and garnets. © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 
Apatite; Atomic energy act; Bastnaesite; Chinese industrial policy; International atomic energy agency (IAEA); Monazite; Nuclear regulatory commission (NRC); Rare earth elements; Thorium; Xenotime 
IRIS
• Uranium Toxicological Review
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