Sebastian, RS; Enns, CW; Goldman, JD
The goals of this study were to describe plain drinking water intake patterns of the U.S. population and determine whether total, tap, and bottled water intakes differ by gender, race/ethnicity, income, and activity level. Twenty-four-hour dietary recall data from 16,566 individuals age 2 years and over participating in What We Eat In America (WWEIA), the dietary intake component of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), in 2005-2008 were analyzed. Appropriate sample weights were applied to produce nationally representative estimates. T-tests were used to identify differences in intakes of total plain, tap, and bottled water intake by gender, race/ethnicity, activity level, and income. Regression procedures were used to adjust estimated means for confounding variables when testing for differences in daily plain water intake by race/ethnicity, activity level, and income. On any given day, 76 percent of individuals age 2 years and over report plain drinking water, and the mean intake per person (including both reporters and nonreporters) is 3.9 cups. Total plain drinking water intakes do not differ by gender within age group, but tap water intakes are higher for males 12-19 years than for females the same age and for females 60+ years than for males the same age (p<.001). The majority of plain drinking water is consumed at home. Nearly three-quarters of plain drinking water (both tap and bottled) is consumed at snacks, and over one-half is consumed at eating occasions for which no other food or beverage is reported. There are some differences in intakes by race/ethnicity, income, and activity level. In some age groups, including adults 20+ years, tap water intake is higher for non-Hispanic whites than for non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics. Among adults 20+ years, there is a positive association between bottled water intake and income, though intakes of total plain and tap water do not differ by income. Adults who are physically active drink more plain water than sedentary adults do. The information furnished by this study is useful to anyone who is interested in plain drinking water in the U.S., including legislators, program planners, nutritionists, media, educators, and consumers.